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In text Find Out more  boxes provide a brief, easy-to-read synopsis of a recently published SAGE Journal Article studies and research. For further research and exploration, each journal article is reprinted in full, below.

Research 7.1

Wesselmann, E.D., Cardoso, F.D., Slater, S. & Williams, K.D. (2012). To be looked at as though air: Civil attention matters. Psychological Science, 23, 166-168.

Abstract: Humans need social connections, and without them, people experience physical and psychological problems (Baumeister & Leary, 1995; Williams, 2009). Because social connections are fundamental to survival, researchers argue that humans evolved systems to detect the slightest cues of inclusion or exclusion (Kerr & Levine, 2008; Leary, Tambor, Terdal, & Downs, 1995; Pickett, Gardner, & Knowles, 2004; Williams, 2009). For example, simple eye contact is sufficient to convey inclusion. In contrast, withholding eye contact can signal exclusion. One form this signal can take relates to the German expression “wie Luft behandeln,” which literally means “to be looked at as though air.” Even though one person looks in the general direction of another, no eye contact is made, and the latter feels invisible. Survey data suggest that people purposefully withhold eye contact as a form of ostracism (Williams, Shore, & Grahe, 1998). Diary data suggest that people feel ostracized even when strangers fail to give them eye contact (Williams, Govan, Wheeler, & Nezlek, 2004). Experimental data confirm that eye contact signals social inclusion, and lack of eye contact signals ostracism (Wirth, Sacco, Hugenberg, & Williams, 2010). We investigated the effect of acknowledgment compared with the effect of being “looked at as though air” in a field experiment in which we further tested the subtle conditions that can fulfill or threaten humans’ need to belong. We hypothesized that being acknowledged by a stranger via eye contact would decrease an individual’s feelings of disconnection, whereas being looked at as though air would increase these feelings. We also tested whether an acknowledgment with a smile was necessary to induce feelings of social connection (Grahe, Williams, & Hinsz, 2000).

Research 7.2

Mackinnon, S., Jordan, C. & Wilson, A (2011). Birds of a feather sit together: Physical similarity predicts seating choice. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 37, 879-892.

Abstract: Across four studies, people sat (or reported they would sit) closer to physically similar others. Study 1 revealed significant aggregation in seating patterns on two easily observed characteristics: glasses wearing and sex. Study 2 replicated this finding with a wider variety of physical traits: race, sex, glasses wearing, hair length, and hair color. The overall tendency for people to sit beside physically similar others remained significant when controlling for sex and race, suggesting people aggregate on physical dimensions other than broad social categories. Study 3 conceptually replicated these results in a laboratory setting. The more physically similar participants were to a confederate, the closer they sat before an anticipated interaction when controlling for sex, race, and attractiveness similarity. In Study 4, overall physical similarity and glasses wearing similarity predicted selfreported seating distance. These effects were mediated by perceived attitudinal similarity. Liking and inferred acceptance also received support as mediators for glasses wearing similarity.

Research 7.4

Crusco, A. & Wetzel, C.G. (1984). The Midas touch: The effects of interpersonal touch on restaurant tipping. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 10, 512-517.

Abstract: The present study examined the two types of touch in a controlled but natural setting, a restaurant. Waitresses briefly touched customers either on the hand or the shoulder as they were returning change. Customers’ reactions were assessed by a restaurant survey and a novel behavior measure, the tip expressed as a percentage of the bill. The tipping rate for the two types of touch did not differ from each other and did not differ according to the customer’s gender. Both tipping rates were significantly larger than a control, no-touch condition. There were no touch effects on the ratings of the waitress, the restaurant’s atmosphere, or the dining experience. It was concluded that touch effects can occur without awareness, and that males will not react more negatively to touch than females when the touch is unobtrusive or free of status and dependency connotations.