Aggression, behaviour intended to harm, may be goal-directed or instigated by anger. Instinct theories assume that aggressive energy must eventually be released but research does not support the notion of catharsis as reducing aggression. The frustration–aggression hypothesis is not supported empirically while Berkowitz’ cognitive neo-association model posits that aversive stimulation produces anger or fear which in turn leads to aggression or flight. Genetic, neural and hormonal influences affect an individual’s ability to control aggression. Aggression is learned through direct reinforcement and through modelling, and through childhood experience. Bullying, including cyberbullying have damaging emotional impact. Viewing media aggression increases the likelihood of violence in children and sometimes has long-lasting effects. Pornography promotes negative attitudes in men towards women, including a belief that women enjoy coercive sex. The prevalence of aggressive behaviour varies among cultures. The relationship between gender and aggression is not straightforward, and women are as aggressive as men in some circumstances, including intimate partner violence, although the consequences are more severe for women. Certain personality factors are associated with aggressiveness. The General Aggression Model is an overarching social-cognitive model that includes the influences of biological factors, personality development, social processes, basic cognitive processes and decision-making processes. Violence in society may be reduced by reducing media violence and by teaching parents how to use appropriate forms of discipline.

KEYWORDS: aggression, Berkowitz’ cognitive neo-association model, bullying, catharsis, frustration–aggression, General Aggression Model, media violence, social learning theory

1. Freud believed that aggression is based on the expression of the life instinct, Eros.

2. Research evidence strongly supports the notion that catharsis occurs after direct or vicarious experience with aggression.

3. While neurological and hormonal factors may increase emotionality and the possibility of aggression, the evidence does not support biological factors as direct causes.

4. Cross-cultural studies show that violence is common in all human societies.

5. People most sensitive to the dangers of media violence are likely to have children who are non-aggressive without any special parental education.

6. Canadian television networks carry much less violent entertainment than networks in the United States.

7. Male and female sex roles differ with regard to the appropriateness of aggression.

8. There is growing evidence that violence occurs frequently in dating relationships even at the teenage level.

9. Male viewers of aggressive pornography tend to view rape as more acceptable, and even being desired by the victims.

10. Violence is often a symptom of social inequality and injustice.

1. F

2. F

3. T

4. F

5. T

6. F

7. T

8. T

9. T

10. T 

MCQ's for Chapter 11

1. How do instrumental and hostile aggression differ?

2. What is the frustration–aggression hypothesis and how has it been revised by Berkowitz?

3. How can aggression be learned? Outline various aspects of the modelling of aggression.

4. How does level of intellectual competence influence the development of aggressive behaviour?

5. Discuss the ‘cycle of violence’ notion with respect to the effects of child abuse, being sure to speak to the various factors which play a role

6. How has the TV violence question been studied? Describe an example for each of three methods used, and indicate the limitations of each.

7. Name and describe five or more indirect negative consequences of media aggression.

8. Outline the excitation-transfer theory with respect to the effects of violent pornography.

9. According to Dutton (1984), what factors increase the likelihood that a man will assault his spouse?

10. Describe two ways in which society may reduce or prevent violence. 

1. Discuss the influence of violence in film, television and pornography on aggressive behaviour. Also discuss whether censorship is a viable and effective means of combating these influences.

2. Is violence a problem of self-control or social control?