Organisational sub-culture: studies suggest that police work is characterised by a particular organisational subculture and that this can exercise a negative influence on routine policing. The disproportionate exercise of police powers are among the problems often ascribed to the nature of police sub-culture – sometimes referred to as ‘canteen culture’ in reference to the unofficial and informal context in which it develops. The concept has been criticised for being overly-determinist and for failing to recognise the institutional context in which police officers operate.

Discretion: the translation of the ‘law in books’ to the ‘law on the street’ requires police officers to interpret complex circumstances and make judgements about the most appropriate response – all of which entails the exercise of discretion. While it is inevitable and desirable that officers exercise discretion considerable and sustained controversies surround the extent to which this is done so inappropriately on the basis of sexist, racist, homophobic or other forms of prejudice, stereotyping and bias. Measures to influence and limit officer discretion also stem from managerial imperatives to effectively deploy resources in an effort to achieve performance targets.

Ethics: in policing terms references to ‘ethics’ usually indicates that the service needs to recognise its broader social responsibilities. Officers are encouraged to consider the implications of their actions, beyond their responsibilities in terms of law-enforcement, and the wider social and cultural context in which they exercise their powers. Codes of ethical behaviour differ from more traditional disciplinary frameworks in that they rarely proscribe behaviour considered unacceptable but instead outline normative ideals to which officers ought to aspire.