Answer:

‘Normal’ relates to factors being within normal healthy homeostatic parameters. Disease can be considered as disturbances from normal. Normality and abnormality are defined in relation to measurements of characteristics compared to standard norms obtained from a sample of people representative of the population. This understanding leads to clarification of variation that can occur and how this can lead to recognition of potential interventions needed.

Answer:

i.Growing up at high altitudes, low oxygen levels stimulate growth of enhanced chest capacity for respiration and recognising the potential for health status in different geographical areas.

ii.Growth curves are similar shape for different racial groups, but growth spurts in Asians occur later than in Caucasian children so that their different heights must be taken into account as indicative of health status.

iii.Children and older people tolerate heat less well. It is several years before sweating mechanisms become fully functional and can diminish in advancing age indicating the importance of adequate fluids and provision of heat.

iv.Inadequate nutrition during period of growth – insufficient production of hormones associated with growth can result in reduced height and weight thus emphasising the importance of adequate nutrition.

v.Susceptibility to malaria is reduced in individuals who carry one gene (i.e. a heterozygote) for a particular variation in haemoglobin, e.g. sickle cell anaemia. Those without this gene require anti-malarial medication.

Answer:

The aspects of living identified below are all important in influencing health status. They should be managed so that a well-balanced diet is prepared for the family with appropriate amounts of the different nutrients. Adequate exercise needs to be encouraged. Smoking should definitely be discouraged to minimise the risks of respiratory diseases and use of drugs and alcohol should be managed to limit the potential effects of behaviour.

i.Type of diet taken

ii.Amount of exercise

iii.Smoking

iv.Use of drugs or alcohol

Answer:

i.Acute: signs and symptoms develop suddenly; it is usually severe, lasts a relatively short time or becomes sub-acute or chronic.

ii.Chronic: persists over an extended period described in terms of months and years rather than days and weeks, usually longer than 3 months. Sometimes progressive leading to increasing loss of independence and ability over time. It may plateau. However, deterioration may progress and result in permanent disability or death. Sometimes kept under control with medication and life style. These require long-term care that takes account of the individual’s likenesses and abilities and abilities of the family to provide care.

iii.Sub-acute: conditions falling between acute and chronic in nature. It cannot be regarded as acute but more than meets the criteria for chronic.

iv.What do you understand by the term ’acute on chronic’? This is when someone with a chronic condition has an acute exacerbation of their illness, requiring more intensive treatment. They may need admission to hospital for a short term until the exacerbation has cleared.

Answer:

i.Congenital: disorders (defect or anomaly) present at birth, which may be genetically determined or due to a factor in uterine environment up to birth

ii.Acquired: develop after birth but may be due to pre-natal influences

iii.Communicable: (infectious or contagious) caused by microbes transmitted from other people, from animals (zoonoses), or from other environmental reservoirs of infection. Spread by air, contact with bodily fluids, ingesting infected food/fluids

iv.Non-communicable: not contracted by communication with others or by infection, but occur as a result of a range of risk factors

The differences between these types of conditions mean that the amount and quality of care needed will vary. At some points professional care will be essential.

Answer:

Negative feedback is when any disturbance from the normal in physiological state results in changes to minimise that disturbance; the body compensates for any disturbance which threatens the steady state and maintains homeostasis. In some diseases negative feedback fails and deviations from normal lead to disturbed homeostasis. One example is over-secretion of the thyroid gland when the normal feedback mechanisms that regulate secretion of the thyroid hormones fail and high levels of hormone secretion occur.

Answer:

There is increased secretion of the catecholamine hormones. These are mainly adrenaline and noradrenaline secreted from the adrenal medulla. They increase metabolic rate with a raised heart and respiratory rate. Additional nutrients are required to supply adequate calories to the tissues of the body with their increased nutritional needs due to increased metabolism.

Answer:

The three stages of the long-lasting stress response are: the Alarm Reaction, the Stage of Resistance, Exhaustion. The changes that occur are mainly due to increased glucocorticoid secretion, which are very important in enabling the body to cope with extra demands. Nutrient metabolism is increased to raise the energy available to the tissues, and fluid and electrolytes and the immune system (+ other physiological functions) are altered. If effects are prolonged they can lead to results which are harmful to the body. The aim in enabling quality of life for the family is to work within the components of the Person-Centred-Practice Framework with the person-centred processes identified.

Answer:

Deficiencies in endocrine function can occur in older people. An older person may have limited reserve capacity to maintain homeostasis and even a cold can result in physiological disturbances and disease. The physiological changes in ageing will influence the presentation of disease.

Answer:

A diagnosis is important because it enables correct treatment for the condition.

History-taking helps diagnosis by finding out as much as possible about the patient and their condition, including factors that alter it, and the time-line of its development. Observed signs and reported symptoms are indicators of disordered function and additional tests assist the differential diagnosis, i.e. determining which of a number of possible disorders is present.

The range of tests shown all help to clarify the changes that may have occurred in body structure and function.

i.Non-invasive tests to measure physiological parameters help to identify abnormal function.

ii.Cytological analysis (biopsies) provides small samples of tissues for examining cells for abnormalities.

iii.Microbiological examination aims to identify specific microbes from infected tissues or exudate.

iv.Radiology includes X-rays and other scans examine the structure of internal organs.

v.Biochemical tests examine chemical and biochemical substances in body fluids and tissues to identify abnormalities.

vi.Endoscopies involve inserting a flexible tube, often with a camera attached, into a body cavity to look for abnormalities.