Answer: Spastic paralysis with increased muscle tone. Size can vary depending on whether therapy is used to maintain muscle use. Atrophy is possible.

Answer: Flaccid paralysis with decreased muscle tone and muscular atrophy

Answer:

·    Relapsing–remitting MS (RRMS)

o affects 85% of newly diagnosed

o attacks followed by partial or complete recovery

o symptoms may be inactive for months or years

·    Secondary-progressive MS (SPMS)

o occasional relapses but symptoms remain constant, no remission

o progressive disability late in disease course

·    Primary-progressive MS (PPMS)

o affects approximately 10% of ms population

o slow onset but continuous worsening condition

·    Progressive-relapsing MS (PRMS)

o rarest form

o affects approximately 5%

o steady worsening of condition at onset

Answer: Nigrostriatal neurons (substantia nigra in the basal ganglia). As PD progresses, the amount of dopamine produced in the brain decreases, leaving a person unable to control movement normally.

Answer:

i.Bradykinesia: a slowness in the execution of movement.

ii.Resting tremor: tremor that occurs in a body part in which the muscles are not being voluntarily contracted and which is completely supported against gravity, e.g. the whole limb resting on a couch. Normally when the limb is moved, the rest tremor will attenuate or disappear.

You may also have found this answer to refer to rigidity or postural instability.

Answer:

·    Prodromal: precede seizure (hours/days)

·    Tonic: increased tone of voluntary muscle, apnoea present (15–60 seconds)

·    Clonic: violent muscular contractions, hyperventilation, eyes rolling, pupils contract and dilate, sphincter muscles relax, apnoea continues hyperventilation possible) (30 seconds)

·    Post-ictal: Breathing resumes, sleep, disorientation, confusion

Answer:

·    Seizure is the symptom, epilepsy is the disease

o seizure disorder = epilepsy

·    A person can have seizures and not have epilepsy

o meningitis, drug intoxication, metabolic disturbance. etc.

·    Specific epilepsy types (or syndromes) can be recognised

o specific seizures, age of onset, EEG features

Answer:

·    Reducing electrical excitability of cell membranes, possibly through inhibition of sodium channel and/or calcium channels

·    Enhancing GABA-mediated synaptic inhibition

·    Inhibition of the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate

Answer: GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the CNS.

Answer:

Hydrocephalus is enlargement of the normal CSF – containing cavities (ventricles) within the brain due to impairment of flow or absorption of the CSF.

Answer:

Bacterial/viral infection and inflammation of the membranes (meninges) and fluid (cerebrospinal fluid) surrounding the brain and spinal cord. Usually secondary to another infection within the body, or directly as a result of trauma to the brain or spinal cord, allowing the invasion of pathogens.

70% of cases in children under 5, incidence now increasing in 15–24-year-olds. High incidence in older adults also. Bacterial meningitis is usually much more serious than viral meningitis.

Answer:

Bacterial

·    Appearance: clear, cloudy, or purulent

·    Opening pressure: elevated (>25 cmH₂O)

·    WBC count: >100 cells/µL (>90% PMN); partially treated cases may have as low as 1 WBC/µL

·    Glucose level: low (< 40% of serum glucose)

·    Protein level: elevated (>50 mg/dL)

Viral

·    Appearance: clear

·    Opening pressure: mormal or elevated

·    WBC count: 10–1000 cells/µL

·    Glucose level: >60% serum glucose (may be low in HSV infection)

·    Protein level: elevated (>50 mg/dL)

Answer:

Inflammation of the brain. Leads to oedema, necrotic areas with or without associated haemorrhage.

Cerebral oedema can become very pronounced, leading to raised ICP.

·    Primary encephalitis: virus directly invades the brain and spinal cord.

·    Secondary (post-infectious) encephalitis: virus first infects another part of the body and secondarily enters the brain.

Primary form of the disease is more serious, while the secondary form is more common. Most people infected with viral encephalitis have only mild or no symptoms, and the illness does not last long.

Answer:

The reticular formation receives signals from various sources in the nervous system and directs them to the thalamus. The reticular formation contains the reticular activating system and has a role in regulating signals that go to the thalamus. The thalamus then directs signals out across the cerebral hemispheres to the cerebral cortex. The thalamus also communicates with the hypothalamus in this regard to regulate the sleep–wake cycle. Being awake is a vital component of consciousness. The pre-frontal cortex is stimulated by the thalamus and is central to regulating perception and experience of the environment to produce a response. The limbic system integrates this to provide an emotional element to that response.